American Foreign Policy .. Between Isolation and Interference From independence to the beginning of the Cold War 1783-1947
American Foreign Policy .. Between Isolation and Interference (1)
From independence to the beginning of the Cold War
1783-1947
Written by Comrade Fahd Suleiman; deputy Secretary General of the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine
(1)
In the origins of isolationism
(1783-1829)(2)
1- ■ From its independence in 1783 to the end of 19th century, over a little a hundred years, the United States has adopted a foreign policy of non-interference in world affairs (outside of the Americas), which is called Isolationism, as a distinction of it the Interventionism.
The origin of this isolationism tendency is documented in the "Farewell Letter" that the first American president, George Washington (1789-1797) addressed to the American people, a few months before the end of his term (9/19/1796), in which he recommended the adoption of a foreign policy, that is based on non-interference in the internal affairs of Europe, and its policies in general, and stressed the importance of not engaging in alliances except when absolutely necessary, and the intention to leave them after the circumstance they had dictated. This meant, by virtue of the position that Europe (including Russia) occupied in the undisputed leadership of the world, and what has been established until the end of the 19th century, that addressed through Europe is the ancient world, that is, the active world in the economy, security, science, technology, and international politics in general.
For his part, Thomas Jefferson, the third president (1801-1809) emphasized this approach in the foreign policy of the United States in the opening speech of his first term (4/3/1801), when he thanked the destinies that wanted to protect America, with a «wall» of the Atlantic Ocean, from the chaos and turmoil of Europe, indicating that the aim of his policy is to achieve peace and prosperity of trade and consolidate friendship with all nations, without entering into the complexities of alliances and struggles with European powers - entangling alliances.
(1) The first part of a lecture on “American foreign policy” was given at the Institute of Social Sciences of the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine.
(2)The period from independence to the end of John Quincy Adams (1825-1829), the sixth president, is considered the last of the “founding fathers”.
■ James Monroe (1817-1825), the fifth president, was the first to generalize The doctrine of the United States' isolation from Europe, to Latin America as a whole, to cut off the efforts of Spain with the support of the "holy alliance" countries (Russia, Austria, Prussia, France) to restore its colonial control over the countries from which it was liberated (Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Mexico), then it was recognized by independent countries, and its recognition on 2/12/1823 annexed to the declaration of the “Monroe Doctrine” under the slogan “America to the Americans”, which included a warning to the powers European (including Russia) that the United States considers any action aimed at restoring colonial control over countries that achieved independence in Latin America, or seizing new colonies there, as a threat to the national security of the United States, which - in return - will not interfere in European affairs, including Its colonies in the Caribbean and South America.
■ So, the doctrine of America’s isolation from the ancient world was developed by three presidents of the(the six) “founding fathers” class in articulated contexts: Washington -1796; Jefferson-1801; Monroe-1823; and this political doctrine moved from privatization (the United States) to generalization (the Latin continent), keeping in mind the protection of the independence of the emerging countries in Latin from the return of ancient colonialism to it, as well as protecting it from the temptation to involve itself in the internal conflicts and contradictions of Europe.
2- ■ The doctrine of isolating the new world from the old world in their both directions: it does not interfere the world in the affairs of the continent, nor does it interfere the continent in the affairs of the world, it also started from the priority of self-building in a virgin continent with weak population density, and with vast areas not inhabited originally, a continent is having resources that more than the needs of its inhabitants, and "abundant fertile areas suitable to accommodate thousands of future generations" (Jefferson in the opening speech of his first term); Finally, a continent whose area (42.8 million km2 equals 31% of the land area in the world) approaches the area of Asia - the main continent (44.4 million km2 equals 32.6% of the land area in the world).
■ If the foregoing falls within the priority of the process of "nation building" free from external interference, it applies in particular to the United States, which was formed, at the beginning from 13 colonies (later converted to 16 out of 50 states), and continued to expand in 19 at an astonishing pace, in various ways and means, which combined the purchase of vast areas of superpowers (Louisiana in 1803 from France, which doubled the size of the United States at the time; Alaska in 1867 from Russia, with an area of 1.7 million km2 equal to 17% of Current area of the United States); seizing zones by war (from Mexico between 1846-1848, and from Spain - 1898); Certain countries (Britain, Spain, and Mexico) ceded in multiple ways to regions. This is not to forget the settlement and annexation of vast lands belonging to the indigenous people, which led to their expulsion, abuse, and confining them to the outcome in ghettos, and by doing all this, the United States continued to expand throughout the 19th century and the last thing that annexed it was the Hawaiian Islands in the year 1898 (Which, along with Alaska in 1959, was transformed into the states 49 and 50 of the Union).
■ Building the United States as a state and a nation that necessitated the invocation of an intellectual, value, ideological, and puritanical religious authority with a valid justification for an expansionist settlement project with legitimate gates in all directions, and with all the crimes it was committing. From here, a terminological dictionary of the American situation arose, using formulas such as: American exceptionalism, which means that the United States occupies a special and distinguished place among other nations; A nation that the world cannot do without; A nation that carries to the world the message of democracy and human rights; etc..
Perhaps “Manifest Destiny” is a doctrine of destiny that reduces most of these concepts and terms, and it is summarized in the form of the divine mandate of the United States to expand over the entire area of North America, and it is the doctrine that occupied the forefront in the ideological mobilization along the 19th century, with the function of stimulating expansion westward towards the Pacific Ocean.
■ Parallel isolationism as a political ideology with a messianic ideology justifies the use of violence, justifies the logic of force and supports it with the logic of truth that comes from above. So, with the growing strength of the United States, it was only a matter of time until the policy of violence moved with the logic of power from the circle of the United States in the context of the nation and state building project to the immediate neighborhood circle, which added to the saying of "America to the Americans", which meant at the beginning, protecting the countries of the Latin continent from ancient colonialism, gradually giving it the meaning of the United States the '' Back Garden '' This is what happened, when the American foreign policy started at the end of the 19th century, it moved from isolation to intervention, and it became imperialistic.■
(2)
From isolation to intervention
1897-1921
1- ■ With William Mckinley's presidency (1897-1901), in parallel with the growing economic power, and building a large war fleet to protect the country's national security and foreign trade, the United States turned into an imperial power competing for its counterparts in the world, a force searching for new markets to exchange Agricultural and industrial surpluses. In this context, the American-Spanish War (1898) resulted in the defeat of the latter, resulting in the US takeover of the Hawaiian Islands + Guam Island + the Philippines (the launch pad towards the giant Chinese market) in the Pacific Ocean. Besides Puerto Rico in the Caribbean Sea, the ideal strategic location for the protection of the Panama Canal project is under preparation.
■ With its war against Spain, the United States opened its stage of strong entry into the arena of international politics, on an equal footing with the great powers at that time, and the US Navy (the Military Fleet) turned into a first-class power, and the political decision-making center in Washington was bringing together His hands, the strengths and means of power at the same time, to implement an effective imperialist interventionist policy, that is: the strengths of power that include the economy, the balanced population, the extended area, and the distinctive geostrategic position, bordering on the two oceans; The means of power based on the advantage of the ability to rapidly deploy by the navy, on a wide arc around the world.
2- ■ This policy continued with a higher dynamism with the presidency of Theodore Roosvelt (1901-1909) with the “doctrine of the big stick”, which he summarized as follows: “Speak softly, carry a thick stick, and you will reach far in your endeavor”, where the big stick means the Navy, which Roosevelt considered continuing to build and strengthen one of the two supports of his country's foreign policy (alongside the “Monroe Doctrine”), as stated in his speech to Congress at the beginning of his term (12/1901), which made the United States at the end of his reign (1909) occupy the position of the second navy power in the world (after Great Britain), and made it ascend to the ranks of the world power.
■ "Imperialism" Roosevelt was based on ensuring American military superiority in the Caribbean basin, which necessitated adding an appendix - Corollary to the "Monroe Doctrine", in December 1904, stipulating that Washington assumed security (police) positions in the Caribbean, including surveillance on the behavior of those in power in his country; the consequence - as a result - of adopting an unrestricted interventionist policy, whose implementations include the establishment of the Guantanamo Naval Base in Cuba (1903), which was followed by years of maritime landing on its shores (1906); imposing customs controls on the Dominican Republic (1905) ... without forgetting the support which required for the construction of the Panama Canal Project (1904-1914) in terms of support for a hastily invoked separatist movement that split with the war on Colombia (1903) and established a new country (Panama) in Central America.
Roosevelt was based on the belief that the commitment to implement the "Monroe Doctrine" passes by providing the necessary force for that, that is, on the balance of power. Hence, the position of the navy in its policy as a deterrent to the interventionist European tendency in the affairs of the continent, which was strengthened in the late 19th century by the accession of Germany, Germany looking for itself "a place under the sun" (i.e., colonies in Asia, Africa, and Latin America). Against this background, Roosevelt derived from the doctrine of protecting the countries of the continent from the ambitions of Europe, justifying his interventionist policy, which means that the "Monroe Doctrine" should - in the first place - serve the national security interest of the United States, leaping from a reality and ignoring the fact that American control on the Caribbean countries, they were hated and rejected by their citizens, as much as they were hated and rejected by European control.
3- ■ After arriving at the White House after the end of Roosevelt State, William Taft (1909-1913) adopted a policy whose slogan is “dollar diplomacy” based on the use of American capital in economic development, to serve the interests of the United States in the world. However, this policy - with the content of dollar imperialism - did not succeed in China, as it clashed with the interests of other colonial countries, and the Chinese Revolution (1911) came later, in order to end the American economic and investment projects.
In Central America, where this endeavor turned to the slogan "the dollar instead of the cannon" (literal translation of the slogan is: "the replacement of dollars in cannon shells"), the developments in Nicaragua eventually led to the placement of the Marines (1912) ; the same is true in Honduras, and in the Dominican Republic; Indeed - more than that - this policy - along with other factors - contributed to the explosion of a social revolution in Mexico (1910). In sum, if this policy reinforced the control of the United States and asserted its influence in Central America, it - in return - inflicted heavy losses on its prestige and led to a shake of confidence in it.
4- ■ Woodrow Wilson (1913-1921) moved away from the policy of his predecessor Taft, whose imperial axis centered by dollar diplomacy, in favor of another policy inspired by the principles of democracy, and implemented it when he refused to recognize the government of the military coup in Mexico, and supported the reformist arms, to find himself was involved in a civil war that lasted more than two and a half years (4 / 1914-12 / 1916), before he was able to withdraw his forces and get out of them (!).
■ The most important event remains, with the participation of the United States, starting on 6/4/1917, in the First World War (1914-1918), which Europe was the most important field of its operations, that is, more than two and a half years after its outbreak. As for the direct reason (among other reasons, there is little room for mentioning it) of the American entry into the war, which caused Washington to leave its declared "neutrality", it is Germany's continued dumping of civilian ships heading to Britain, which inflicted heavy losses on civilians, including those of the American attached, this caused the generation of anti-German public opinion, which neutralized, or at least contained, the public mood opposing participation in the ongoing war in Europe against the background of distancing oneself from European conflicts that deeply rooted in American consciousness, and indeed in the ruling political doctrine, whose roots go back to the "Commandments" of the Founding Fathers (Washington, Jefferson, Monroe, ...), as already mentioned.
■ after Wilson adopted the slogan "peace without victory" with the outbreak of war, indicating the avoidance of reaping the regional imperialist gains, in which the military victory achieved for a subsequent war (as it established the 1870s of the 1914-1918 war); and after he demanded only the delivery of Germany to the zigzag of seeking a cease-fire(Armistice), that is, before the capitulation, Wilson considered that the United States entered the war from the position of the partner of the countries of understanding (Entente), and not from the position of the ally, because of his knowledge of the imperial expansionist goals which they sought.
■ On 8/1/1918, Wilson announced the famous 14 points, among which the most important points are limiting weapons, rejecting the secret diplomacy, the right to self-determination of peoples, e stablishing a "League of Nations" to avoid the subsequent wars, and guaranteeing the world peace.
On 3/10/1918, Germany requested a cease-fire and peace based on the 14 points, and Wilson reached the climax of his influence (moral political) globally. On 11/11/1918 the cease-fire was signed, and between January and May 1919 the peace conference was held in Paris, which culminated in the Treaty of Versailles, one of whose clauses provided for the creation of the «League of Nations». However, the US Senate rejected this treaty (11/19/1919 and 3/19/2020), including participation in the League of Nations, on the grounds of anticipating the possibility of involvement in military conflicts that may result from membership in the League. With this, the United States has withdrawn politically from Europe, after it contributed to settling its militarily war, registering a retreat that returned it to the traditions of isolation in foreign policy. But the United States, the growing capitalist state, is strength, and imperialism is objective. It can no longer abandon its approach to openness to the world with an interventionist policy that exceeds all that preceded it, but after two decades ■
(3)
Relative retardation
1921-1933
1- ■ The three "Republicans" (1921-1933) who entered the White House after Wilson, the "Democrat," represented the conservative nationalist trend in American foreign policy ("America First"), what it meant: focus on economic expansion in the world, and what helps to continue it. Hence, interest in arms control talks at sea, and the renunciation of war; on the other hand, continuing to avoid interference in the international politics, including moving away from the League of Nations, and even from the International Court of Justice, i.e. in short: economic openness to the world, with the least amount of political interference in its affairs, and not to get involved in its struggles.
■ However, the growing power of the United States is sympathetic to the economist - objectively - to the politician; and the major political conflicts taking place in the world, from Europe to the Far East, (especially after the rise of Japanese imperialism), which entered the path of the major economic-financial crisis (1929-1933) starting from Wall Street, all the way to all corners of the capitalist world ... These and other developments were pushing the United States to leave the policy of distancing itself from the international scene, or - more precisely - it was pushing for more involvement in it, because the situation that arose after the First World War and the position that the United States has occupied in the international equations is no longer it is allowed - and was not originally in its interest - to isolate itself from its course, as was the case until the eve of the qualitative turn of foreign policy during the McKinley presidency.
The objective circumstance, then, was to call for a departure from the state of relative retreat, indeed, the will, from the broader engagement with the international affairs, thus avoiding the selective approach in dealing with its outcomes, focusing on specific issues, and neglect the other.
2-■ The foreign policy of President Warren Harding (1921-1923) combined pragmatism and conservatism in the international politics, mixing between developing foreign economic relations and moving away from the League of Nations, and between talks with great powers, or with influential countries, with the aim of stabilizing the international situation. In this context, special attention was paid to peace agreements between yesterday's enemies, and the economic situation in the Far East, including the complex relationship with Japan.
■ The most important foreign policy event of that period was represented by the opening of the "Ninth Power Conference" in Washington (12/1921) with the participation of: the United States + Belgium + United Kingdom (Britain) + China + France + Italy + Netherlands + Portugal + Japan. The conference discussed ways to help calm the situation in the Far East, in China and its surrounding in particular, and reduce the arms race in the seas, and in 1922 the conference reached a decision affirming the sovereignty of China over its entire territory and the inadmissibility of violating its borders. In the context of the works of this conference, two conferences were held: 1- The “Four Forces Conference” (the United States + Britain + France + Japan), which came out with mutual guarantees between these countries, that violations among themselves in the Pacific are not permitted. 2- The "Conference of the Five Powers" (the 4 above + Italy) in February 1922, when it was agreed to limit armaments at sea.
3- ■ The presidency of Calvin Coolridge (1923-1929) coincided with the development of the American economy peaking in the 1920s, and the foreign policy could have been based on the globally advanced industrial and financial standing of it country, as American investment abroad (and its center of gravity in Europe, Canada, and Latin), reached a record, almost equaled Britain's investments that occupy the first position in this regard. Accordingly, Coleridge pursued the conservative international policy of his predecessor, and he reached between 1923 and 1926 an agreement to settle the debts of the First World War (compensation), and with the participation of American banks, between the various stakeholders (Britain, France + 11 other countries). Perhaps the most important achievement of the Coleridge administration's foreign policy was the US-French "Non-War War" (1928) to which 60 countries joined, vowing to abandon the war as a tool in their countries' politics, which contributed - for a temporary period - to calming the international situation.
In Latin, Coleridge continued the tradition of interventionist politics in Central America and the Caribbean, with Marines landed in Nicaragua (1926), knowing that he had ended the military control in the Dominican Republic two years ago (1924). In 1926, the US State Department put heavy pressure on Mexico to change the laws of land ownership and oil investment, which it considered Polish (!), but as a result - it managed to achieve a settlement with the Mexican government in 1928.
4- ■ The foreign policy of the Herbert Hoover Administration (1929-1933) was affected by the major economic crisis that started from the Wall Street in October 1929, and by the decline of the United States internationally. But he - essentially - pursued the policy of his predecessors, maintaining the position of non-participation in the League of Nations, non-recognition of the Soviet Union, and he believed in the international cooperation and concerted efforts for the world peace.
On the subject of disarmament, Hoover achieved a settlement at the "Fleet Conference" in London (1930), which decided to reduce the tonnage of warships, but this settlement did not last long. In the Geneva Conference on «Disarmament» (1932), he sought to prevent armies from possessing offensive weapons, and to reduce their owners to a third of many, with little result.
Hoover sought to improve the relationship with Latin, remove suspicion of US intentions, mistrust of its policy, activate the joint action on the cultural issues, and stop the policy of military intervention. In this context, the Marines were withdrawn before the end of their mandate from Nicaragua, as well as preparing for a similar step in Haiti.
■ In the Far East, and based on Japan’s violation of the signed agreements not to prejudice the sovereignty and territorial integrity of China during the crisis in Manduria (1931-1932), the US administration on 7/1/1932 implemented the “Hoover-Stimson Doctrine” to not recognize any territorial expansion of the Japan experience by the military means. As a result, Hoover's goals in most of the crisis years remained largely ineffective and failed to prevent the United States from deteriorating globally ■
(4)
The final exit from isolation
1945 – 1933
■ 1-During Franklin Roosevelt's term (FDR) (1933-1945), the concept of interventionism moved to the field of domestic politics, after its use was limited to the field of foreign policy. Therefore, the concept of interventionism got a new dimension represented in expanding the role of government, which was not exist in the past, in economic and social issues, and what is related to them. This is what the Roosevelt program reflected: The New Deal, with the content of the social deal between the state, capital, and society, which expands the role of the state in managing public affairs, i.e. "a more country" according to the common term, which led to an increased role of the executive level, Especially the presidency institution in governing the country.
■ This role was called upon by the major crisis of capitalism in its monopoly phase that exploded in 1929 in the United States, and its implications for the entire western world, which made the concerned departments and decision-making centers realize the objective need for a new, interventionist role that the state has in dealing with the imbalance inherent in the structure The capitalist system that threatens to destroy it, and in restoring the economic balance of the capitalist system, and ensure its continuity.
■ The mechanism of competition between monopolies with this level of intensity, which now requires the presence of a body that organizes this competition, which constitutes a judge between its poles and its various monopolies, without expressing a specific monopoly interest, but rather takes care of the higher interest of capital, and works as an officer regulating the relationship between the various parties, this party is the dominant state over the contradictions of the various groups, and it is distinguished - objectively - with the farsightedness, the guarantor vision of the ultimate interest of monopoly capitalism.
2-■ In foreign policy, Roosevelt realized early the dangers of the rise of Nazism in Germany, fascism in Italy, and expansionist militarism in Japan; And he was expecting, while watching the start of war in Europe and the Middle East, that the natural position of the United States is on the side of the anti-Axis powers (Germany + Italy + Japan ..); but he was aware of the root of the isolationist mood in his country, which is the motivation - under all circumstances to stay away from the next war, and in a safe location beyond the borders of those around. Congress accurately reflected this mood by promulgating the so-called "impartial laws" between 1935 and 1937.
■ Roosevelt fought a multifaceted political battle to persuade his citizens of the danger of isolation from the world, because the security and welfare of the country are related to the security of Europe and Asia, and breaching the balance of power in Europe, and not to mention the victory of the Axis powers, will have dire consequences for the United States in one interconnected world, governed by a rule of being influenced and reciprocal influence among its various components. Accordingly, the national interest is preserved only by preserving world peace, providing the conditions for the continuation of a free economy, ensuring the right of self-determination to people, and respecting the principles of collective security, etc….
■ As a result of these efforts that targeted citizens' awareness, after the war in 1939, due to the shock caused by Japan's attack on the naval base in Pearl Harbor in 1941, Roosevelt, managed mainly to overcome the effect of the isolation current, and turn the general mood to an aggressive interventionist state, which transferred the United States - after winning - to the ranks of the great powers.
■ After the Second World War, the strength of the United States, militarily, economically, financially, scientifically, and culturally, had reached a degree that made it impossible for any regressive dynamic to return it to its borders beyond the two oceans. The United States became the undisputed leader of the "free world", and the other pole that facing the Soviet Union, which has made interventionism a constant, rooted, and inherent feature of its foreign policy throughout the period of the "Cold War", as well as in the period that followed, that is, the period of unipolar dominance, and to this day . This interventionist policy may acquire more than one form and follow more than one method, depending on the priorities and estimates of the resident administration policy in the White House, but it does not change anything from its nature, nor from its intrinsically based on the organically inherent intervention of globalization.■